Environmental benefits of GMOs

Crop Biotechnology Continues to Provide Higher Farmer Income and Significant Environmental Benefits 

capsicum

Farmers who planted hereditarily altered (GM) crops expanded their incomes by virtually $19 billion out of 2018 and decreased carbon discharges by 23 billion kilograms or what might be compared to expelling 15.3 million vehicles from the streets that year. The higher pay speaks to $4.42 in additional financial gain for every additional dollar contributed, as per a report delivered today by PG Economics. 



"GM crop innovation keeps on making a significant commitment to reducing the natural impression of farming and making sure about worldwide food supplies in a manageable manner. It has additionally helped lift some little, asset poor farmers and their families in creating nations out of neediness" said Graham Brookes, head of PG Economics, co-creator of the report. 

Features within the peer-reviewed report include :

golden rice

Crop biotechnology has diminished the agribusiness' ecological effect. 


Crop biotechnology has fundamentally diminished horticulture's ozone harming substance outflows by helping farmers receive more reasonable practices, for example, decreased culturing, which diminishes the consumption of petroleum derivatives and holds more carbon in the dirt. Had GM crops not been developed in 2018, for instance, an extra 23 billion kilograms of carbon dioxide would have been discharged into the environment, which is what could be compared to adding 15.3 million vehicles to the streets. 



From 1996 to 2018, crop biotechnology decreased the use of crop security items by 776 million kilograms, a worldwide decrease of 8.6 percent. This is equivalent to more than 1.6 occasions China's all-out crop security items utilize every year. Thus, farmers who develop GM crops have diminished the ecological effect related to their crop assurance practices by 19 percent3. 

Crop biotechnology conveys an astounding quantifiable profit for the farmers utilizing the innovation. 

brinjal

In 2018, farmers in developing countries received $4.42 as an additional financial gain for every additional dollar endowed in metric weight unit crop seeds, whereas farmers in developed countries received $3.24 as an additional financial gain for every additional dollar endowed in metric weight unit crop seeds.

The net farm-level financial advantage was slightly below $19 billion of every 2018, equivalent to a normal increase in the pay of $103/hectare. From 1996 to 2018, cyber web world farm financial gain profit was $225 billion, up to a mean increase in the financial gain of $96.7/hectare.




Crop biotechnology has added to worldwide food security and decreased pressure to utilize new land in agribusiness GM crop innovation has improved yields through improved control of pests and weeds. For instance, insect-resistant (IR) crop innovation utilized in cotton and corn has, between 1996 to 2018, overall clients of this innovation, expanded yields by a normal of 16.5 percent for IR corn and 13.7 percent for IR cotton comparative with ordinary production systems. Farmers who develop IR soybeans financially in South America has seen a normal 9.4 percent expansion in yields since 2013. 




More than 23 years of across the board use, crop biotechnology has been liable for the extra worldwide production of 278 million tons of soybeans, 498 million tons of corn, 32.6 million tons of cotton build-up, and 14 million tons of canola. 

corn

GM crops enable farmers to grow a lot of while not having to use extra land. For instance, if crop biotechnology had not been accessible to farmers in 2018, keeping up worldwide production levels that year would have required the planting of an extra 12.3 million hectares (ha) of soybeans, 8.1 million ha of corn, 3.1 million ha of cotton and 0.7 million ha of canola. This is equal to requiring an extra 14 percent of the cultivatable land in the United States, or approximately 38 percent of the cultivatable land in Brazil or 16 percent of the trimming territory in China.

References

Crop Biotech.



Brookes G, Barfoot P. Environmental impacts of genetically modified (GM) crop use 1996-2016: impacts on pesticide use and carbon emissions. GM Crops Food. 2018b;9(3):109–39. DOI:10.1080/21645698.2018.1476792. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]



Brookes G. The farm-level impact of using Bt maize in Spain. 7th ICABR conference on public goods and public policy for agricultural biotechnology; 2003; Ravello, Italy. [accessed 2019 March]. 

Agrobacterium tumefaciens transgenic plants

 Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer

Agrobacterium tumefaciens could be a soil gram-negative infectious agent that naturally infects plants at their wound sites and causes unwellness} disease by transfer of (T)-DNA from microorganism cells into plant cells. Therefore, the bacteria genus has been extensively studied as an infectious agent and a very important biotechnological tool. The infection method involves the transfer of T-DNA and virulence proteins into the plant cell. At that point, the organic phenomenon patterns of host plants disagree betting on the bacteria genus strain, plant species, and cell-type used. 



It is the preeminent practical utilized vector to plant transformation. This particular method of activity has moreover made the microorganisms a significant device in plant breeding. once attachment of bacteria genus to plant cells and expression of multiple virulence (vir) genes, many effector proteins, in conjunction with T-DNA, area unit transported into the plant cell by a type-IV-secretion system.

History

Marc Van Montagu and Jozef Schell at the University of urban focus (Belgium) found the grouping move component between microscopic organisms variety and plants, that brought about the improvement of approaches to change microorganisms sort into Associate in the Nursing practical conveyance framework for arrangement designing in plants. A group of specialists diode by Dr. Mary-Dell Chilton was essential to show that the destructiveness qualities can be expelled while not unfavorably impactful the adaptability of microscopic organisms sort to embed its own deoxyribonucleic corrosive into the plant order (1983).

Types of bacteria genus species

1. Agrobacterium tumefaciens that form unwellness} disease/ crown gall disease.







2. Agrobacterium rhizogenes, Bacteria genus rhizogenes form hairy root disease. bacteria genus rhizogenes (recently revised as Rhizobium rhizogenes; Young et al., 2001) could be a soil-borne gram-negative bacteria that initiate textured roots after injuring and contamination of monocotyledon and eudicot plants. Its root-inducing inclusion, containing transfer deoxyribonucleic acid cryptography root locus (rol) sequence loci (rolA, rolB, and rolC), is answerable for the stable introduction of genetic material into host cells. This will trigger the lush production of extremely branched furry roots at the positioning of infection, typically the hypocotyl or seed leaf. 







3. Bacteria genus radiobacter is an Associate in Nursing avirulent strain. It contains 7.2 million base pairs with a G+C composition of 59.9%.  The hereditary material is composed inside one round body containing 4,005,130 base sets, in addition to four plasmids. A. radiobacter is distinguished by being the sole member of the genus that doesn't have morbific tendencies towards plants. The life form utilizes dead stuff inside the rhizosphere, unequivocal environs impacted by the essential frameworks of plants, as every its carbon and vitality gracefully.

Ti Plasmid 

The microscopic organisms contain Ti (Tumor causing/Inducing ) and Ri (Root initiating) plasmids. Every one of these plasmids will move a piece of their deoxyribonucleic corrosive (T-DNA) into plant cell chromosomes by that Plant cells become modified by the articulation of the T-DNA succession that actuates disease. 


1. A Ti consideration/plasmid is roundabout deoxyribonucleic corrosive found in most agrobacteria. 

2. There territory unit 3 principle areas of Ti plasmids 


• T-(Transferable) deoxyribonucleic corrosive locale between the left and right border sequence, Oncogenes, opine 


• Vir (Virulence ) locale 


• Host Specificity Region 


• Ori (origin of Replication) Region 


The Ti plasmids territory unit grouped into entirely unexpected ( with respect to 14) assortments depending upon the exact opine being incorporated. 


( octapine/nopaline/Agropine )

Depending upon the trans and cis offer of vir sequence merchandise 2 vector systems are developed i.e. cointegrate vector system and binary vector system

Cointegrate vector system

Co-integrated vectors were among the primary forms of changed and designed plasmids devised for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, however aren't widely used nowadays. 



These vectors area unit created by the homologous recombination of an E. coli plasmid with the-DNA region of Associate in Nursing endogenous inclusion/Plasmid in bacteria genus. 



The integration of the 2 plasmids needs a part of similarity present in each. 

Co-integrated inclusion assembled by in vitro manipulation unremarkably contains: 




 the vir genes 



 the left and right T-DNA borders 



 an exogenous DNA sequence between the two T-DNA borders



  plant and microorganism selectable markers

Binary vector system

Binary Plant Transformation Vector within the binary vector system, the 2 totally different plasmids utilized area unit A wide-host-range tiny replicon, known as mini Ti plasmid that has Associate in Nursing origin of replication (ori) that allows the upkeep of the inclusion during a big selection of bacterium as well as E. coli and bacteria genus. 





This plasmid generally contains: 





 foreign deoxyribonucleic acid in situ of T-DNA 



 the left and right T-DNA borders (or a minimum of the proper T- border) 



 markers for choice and maintenance in each E. coli and A. tumefaciens 



 a selectable marker for plants 



 The inclusion is "disarmed" since its tumor-inducing genes situated within the T-DNA are removed

Transfer of bacteria genus into the Plant order

The bacterium will infect plants specifically dicots through a wound close to the soil surface. throughout infection T-DNA of Ti-plasmid gets transferred within the plant cells and becomes integrated into the order. T-DNA carries genes for the expression of illness. The T-DNA region contains genes for the synthesis of auxins, cytokinins, and opines. Auxins and cytokinins genes causing illness and opines area unit used as a nutrient by bacteria genus. Virulence region contains eight operons having 24-25 genes. All the genes within the T-DNA region contain eukaryotic regulative sequences, therefore the area unit expressed solely within the plant cells.

Function T-DNA

Auxin biosynthesis; encodes protein tryptophan-2-mono-oxygenase, that converts tryptophan into indole-3-acetamide (IAM).





Auxin biosynthesis; encodes protein indole-3-acetamide hydrolase, that converts IAM into IAA (indole-3-acetic acid).





Cytokinin biosynthesis; encodes protein isopentenyl enzyme, that catalyzes the formation of isopentenyl A. 

Nopaline biosynthesis; encodes the protein nopaline synthase, which produces nopaline from essential amino acid and acid.  

Vir region ( virulence region)

Wikipedia

Agrobacterium-mediated horizontal sequence transfer: Mechanism ...








Vir region contains eight operons ( VirA, B, C, D, E, F, G and H). Vir regions mediate the transfer of T-DNA into the plant order.




Vir region of Ti-plasmid becomes activated by the phenoplast signals ( acetosyringone ) that area unit discharged by the wounded tissue of exogen plants. phenoplast compounds bind with VirA supermolecule and activate it. 



Then  VirA supermolecules phosphorylate VirG protein that then dimerizes. It induces expression of the remainder of all operons. 



Then VirD1 supermolecule has nuclease activity, it binds to the proper border sequence of T-DNA and facilitates the action of VirD2 supermolecule that is additionally nuclease. The T-DNA strand is nicked at the left border to get a single-strand copy of T-DNA. to the present single-strand copy, VirE2 supermolecule binds for its protection against exonucleases.




VirB and VirD4 proteins participate in connubial tube formation between microorganisms and plant cells for the transfer of T-DNA. VirD2 remains bind to 5' finish of T-DNA that drives into the nucleus of the plant cell.




T-DNA enters into the plant cell as a fiber structure that is regenerate into ds structure. ds T-DNA integrates arbitrarily web sites within the host plant order for integration 23-79 bp deletion takes place at the target site. once the mixing of T-DNA into the plant order, the sequence for auxins, cytokinins, and opines categorical themselves which ends in uncontrolled growth of a tumor that is termed unwellness} disease in plants.

Vir region operate

vir A Encodes a receptor for acetosyringone that functions as Associate in Nursing autokinase; additionally phosphorylates VirG protein; constituent expression. 



virB Membrane proteins; probably kind a channel for T-DNA transport (conjugal tube formation); VirB eleven has ATPase activity.



virC Helicase; binds to the overdrive region simply outside the proper border; concerned in moving of T-DNA. 


VirDl has topoisomerase activity; it binds to the proper border of T-DNA; VirD2 is Associate in Nursing endonuclease; it nicks the proper border. 



virE Single-strand binding proteins (SSBP); bind to T-DNA throughout its transfer.



virF, virG deoxyribonucleic acid-binding protein; in all probability forms chemical compound once phosphorylation by VirA, and induces the expression of all vir operons; constituent expression.



virH Not standard.

TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUE mistreatment bacteria genus 

Some prerequisites for the integration of foreign sequence and production of transgenic plants area unit as follows 



•The plant explants should turn out acetosyringone to induce Vir genes for virulence. 



•Induced bacteria genus ought to have access to cells that area unit competent for transformation or to require up deoxyribonucleic acid.


 • Cells should be meristematic, often reworked tissue or explants don't regenerate and aren't ability, thus transformation and regeneration competent cells ought to be taken as explants. 


• The reworked explants cells ought to enable expression of the transgene. 


• illness inflicting genes shouldn't be transferred and expressed, which is helped by disarmed T deoxyribonucleic acid.




Agrobacterium sequence transfer is achieved within the following 2 ways that



• Co-culture with tissue explants


• In planta transfusion




Co-culture with tissue explants For transformation explants like a body part, callus, tissue slices, leaf disc, stem or floral tissue, etc. is co-cultured with genetically designed bacteria genus with recombinant vectors for regarding two days. throughout co-culture acetosyringone(phenolic signal molecule ) discharged from wounds (cut-leaf disc) induce the Vir genes that cause the transfer of recombinant T-DNA into several of the plant cells. 



The explants will then be transferred to shoot causing (regeneration medium ) containing antibiotics and carbenicillin. antibiotic permits solely reworked plant cells to divide and regenerate shoots in regarding 3-4 weeks, whereas carbenicillin kills bacteria genus cells. The shoots area unit separated and transferred to root causing medium and eventually once a few weeks area unit transferred to soil. 



By this co-culture methodology solely exogen plants are reworked. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of monocotyledon plant ( cereals ) cells is achieved by adding acetosyringone within the medium throughout co-culture In planta transformation.

field 

In planta transformation 



Transformation may also be achieved by the imbibition of seeds in the recent culture of bacteria genus. T-DNA becomes integrated into the plant order. It seems that bacteria genus cells enter the spermatophyte throughout germination, area unit maintained inside the plants, once flowers develop, the fertilized ovum or cells become reworked. 

Advantages of Agrobacterium-mediated sequence transfer 

• Easy and relatively less costly 


• High transformation potency 


• Transgenic crops obtained have higher fertility proportion 


• Protocols for each dicotyledon and monocot area unit offered 


• comparatively giant length deoxyribonucleic acid phase is transferred 

Disadvantages of Agrobacterium-mediated sequence transfer 

•Time overwhelming 

•Not all reasonably cells are treated by this methodology 


•Sometimes ends up in false-positive results.

References

Akiyoshi, D. E., Morris, R., Hinz, R., Mischke, B., Kosuge, T., Garfinkel, D., et al. (1983). Cytokinin/auxin balance in crown gall tumors is regulated by specific loci in the T-DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80, 407–411. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.80.2.407





Akiyoshi, D. E., Regier, D. A., and Gordon, M. P. (1987). Cytokinin production by Agrobacterium and Pseudomonas spp. J. Bacteriol. 169, 4242–4248.




Akiyoshi, D. E., Regier, D. A., Jen, G., and Gordon, M. P. (1985). Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the gene from Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain T37. Nucleic Acids Res. 13, 2773–2788. DOI: 10.1093/nar/13.8.2773





Aloni, R., Pradel, K. S., and Ullrich, C. I. (1995). The three-dimensional structure of vascular tissues in Agrobacterium tumefaciens-induced crown galls and in the host stems of Ricinus communis L. Planta 196, 597–605. DOI: 10.1007/BF00203661






Aloni, R., Wolf, A., Feigenbaum, P., Avni, A., and Klee, H. J. (1998). The never ripe mutant provides evidence that tumor-induced ethylene controls the morphogenesis of Agrobacterium tumefaciens-induced crown galls on tomato stems. Plant Physiol. 117, 841–849. DOI: 10.1104/pp.117.3.841

what is marker-assisted selection in plant breeding

Marker-assisted selection

MAS

The distinctions that recognize one plant from another are encoded in the plant's hereditary material, the DNA. DNA is bundled in chromosome sets (strands of hereditary material), one originating from each parent. The genes, which control a plant's attributes, is situated on explicit portions of every chromosome. Together, the entirety of a plant's genes makes up its genome.


A few characteristics, similar to bloom color, could also be controlled by just one factor. Other increasingly complex attributes, be that as it may, similar to crop yield or starch content, might be affected by numerous genes. Customarily, plant breeders have chosen plants dependent on their obvious or quantifiable qualities, called the phenotype. This procedure can be troublesome, slow, affected by the earth, and exorbitant – in the advancement itself as well as for the economy, as farmers endure crop losses.



As an easy route, plant breeders presently use marker-helped determination/marker-assisted selection (MAS). To help distinguish explicit genes, researchers use what is called molecular or hereditary markers. The markers are a string or succession of nucleic acid which makes up a portion of DNA. The markers are situated close to the DNA grouping of the ideal gene and are sent by the standard laws of inheritance starting with one age then onto the next. Since the markers and the genes are near one another on a similar chromosome, they will in general remain together as every age of plants is created. This is called hereditary linkage. This linkage encourages researchers to foresee whether a plant will have the ideal gene. In the event that scientists can discover the marker for the quality, it implies the ideal quality itself is available.


Marker-Assisted choice a technique of choosing fascinating people during a breeding theme supported deoxyribonucleic acid molecular marker designs rather than, or notwithstanding, their attribute esteems. A tool that may facilitate plant breeders chooses a lot of with efficiency for fascinating crop traits.


MAS isn't generally worthwhile, so cautious investigation of the expenses and advantages comparative with to standard breeding ways is important.

Gene pyramiding 

MAS

Gene pyramiding or stacking can be characterized as a procedure of joining at least two genes from different guardians to create world-class lines and assortments. Or then again Pyramiding involves stacking various genes prompting the synchronous articulation of more than one gene in an assortment. MAS based gene pyramiding could encourage in pyramiding of gene successfully into one genetic background.

Foreground selection 

Foreground selection alludes to utilizing markers that are firmly connected to the gene of enthusiasm for a request to choose for the objective allele or gene. Closer view determination is to connect a molecular marker with the objective characteristic by some hereditary planning methodology.

Background selection

Background selection alludes to utilizing markers that are not firmly connected to the gene of enthusiasm for a request to choose against other DNA from the contributor ( donar ) parent. 

It is accustomed to taking away the donor parent alleles aside from the required target factor. In this strategy, four free markers for every chromosome not conveying the objective gene are sufficient for choice. The utilization of similarly dispersed markers reduces the populace size required.

Capsicum

Genetic markers in plant breeding

Hereditary/Genetic markers are the natural highlights that are controlled by allelic types of genes or hereditary loci and can be sent starting with one age then onto the next, and hence they can be utilized as trial tests or labels to monitor an individual, a tissue, a cell, a nucleus, a chromosome or a gene. 

Hereditary markers utilized in hereditary qualities and plant breeding can be ordered into two classes: 

Classical markers: Morphological markers, Cytological markers, and Biochemical markers. 

DNA markers: RFLP, AFLP, RAPD, SSR, SNP, etc.

Classical markers

Morphological markers

Morphological markers can outwardly recognize characteristics like seed structure, bloom color, development propensity, and alternative vital scientific discipline traits. Morphological markers are anything but difficult to use, with no necessity for explicit instruments. They don't require any specific biochemical and molecular strategies. Breeders have utilized such sort of markers effectively in the rearing/breeding projects for different yields. 

DNA

Detriments/ Disadvantages

They are restricted in number,


Impacted by the plants' development stages and different environmental factors.

Cytological markers 

Markers that square measure associated with varieties present in the numbers, banding designs, size, shape, order, and position of chromosomes are known as cytological markers. These varieties uncover contrasts in the distributions of euchromatin and heterochromatin. 

Biochemical markers 

Biochemical markers, or isozymes, are multi-molecular sorts of compounds that are coded by different genes however have similar functions. Isozymes are elective structures or basic variations of a catalyst that have distinctive molecular weights and electrophoretic versatility however have the equivalent catalytic activity or capacity. 



Isozymes mirror the results of various alleles as opposed to various genes on the grounds that the distinction in electrophoretic portability is brought about by point change/mutation because of amino acid replacement. In this way, isozyme markers can be hereditarily mapped onto chromosomes and afterward utilized as hereditary markers to plan different genes. 

Lab

Detriments/ Disadvantages

Restricted in numbers. 

Impacted by ecological elements or the formative phase of the plant. 

DNA markers 

Molecular markers are nucleotide successions and can be explored through the polymorphism present between the nucleotide groupings of various individuals. Addition, cancellation, point mutation duplication, and movement are the premises of these polymorphisms; be that as it may, they don't really influence the action of genes. A perfect DNA marker ought to be co-dominant, equally disseminated all through the genome, exceptionally reproducible, and being able to distinguish a more elevated level of polymorphism.

RFLP ( Restriction fragment length polymorphism ) 

RFLP was the principal molecular marker procedure and the main marker framework dependent on hybridization. Individuals of similar species display polymorphism because of inclusion/erasures (known as InDels), point mutations, movements, duplications, and inversions. Confinement of unadulterated DNA is the initial phase in the RFLP system. This DNA is blended in with restriction enzymes that are confined from microscopic organisms 
( Bacteria ) and these compounds are utilized to cut DNA at specific loci (known as recognition sites). These outcomes in an enormous number of fragments with various lengths.

MAS Field

AFLP ( Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism ) 

The confinements present in the RAPD and RFLP methods were defeated through the improvement of AFLP markers. AFLP markers consolidate the RFLP and PCR innovation, in which assimilation of DNA is done and afterward PCR is performed. AFLP markers are savvy and there is no requirement for earlier sequence data. In AFLP, both great quality and incompletely degraded DNA can be utilized; in any case, this DNA ought not to contain any restriction enzymes or PCR inhibitors.

RAPD ( Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA ) 

RAPD is a PCR-based marker framework. In this framework, the complete genomic DNA of an individual is enhanced by PCR utilizing a single, short (as a rule around ten nucleotides/bases) and arbitrary groundwork. During PCR, amplification happens when two hybridization locales are like one another and the other way. These amplified sections are absolutely subject to the length also, the size of both the objective genome and the primer.

SSR ( Simple Sequence Repeats )

Microsatellites are likewise called SSRs; short tandem repeats and simple succession length polymorphisms. SSRs have coupled rehash motifs of 1–6 nucleotides that are available plentifully in the genome of different taxa. Microsatellites can be mononucleotide (A), dinucleotide (GT), trinucleotide (ATT), tetranucleotide (ATCG), pentanucleotide (TAATC) and hexanucleotide (TGTGCA). Microsatellites are disseminated in the genome; in any case, they are likewise present in the chloroplast and mitochondria. SSRs speak to the lesser redundancy per locus with a higher polymorphism level. This high polymorphism level is because of the event of different numbers of repeats in microsatellite regions and can be distinguished effortlessly by PCR.

SNP ( Single-nucleotide polymorphism )

Single base-pair changes present in the genome arrangement of an individual are known as SNPs. SNPs might be advances (C/T or G/An) or transversions (C/G, A/T, C/An, or T/G) based on the nucleotides replacement. Typically, in mRNA, single base changes are available, including SNPs that are inclusion/deletions (InDel) in a solitary base. A solitary nucleotide base is the littlest unit of inheritance and SNP can give the least complex and greatest number of markers. SNPs are available in bounty in plants and creatures and the SNP recurrence in plants ranges between 1 SNP in each 100–300 bp. SNPs are generally dispersed inside the genome and can be found in coding or non-coding locales of genes or between two genes (intergenic area) with various frequencies.

fieldwork

Use of MAS

1. It is helpful in gene pyramiding for infection and creepy crawly opposition.


2. Utilizations in the backcrossing program.


3. It is being utilized for the exchange of male sterility into developed genotypes from various sources.


4.MAS is being utilized for the improvement of value characters in various crops, for example, for protein quality in maize.

Merits of MAS

1. Exactness,


2. Fast Method,


3. Non-transgenic Product,


4. Recognizable proof of Recessive Alleles,


5. Early Detection of Traits,


6. Screening of Difficult Traits,

7. Exceptionally Reproducible

References

Cole CT. Genetic variation in rare and common plants. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst. 2003;34: 213–227.



Hamrick JL. Isozymes and the analysis of genetic structure in plant populations. In: Soltis DE, Soltis PS, Dudley TR, editors. Isozymes in plant biology. Dordrecht: Springer; 1989. p. 87–105.



Kebriyaee D, Kordrostami M, Rezadoost MH, et al. QTL analysis of agronomic traits in rice using SSR and AFLP markers.



Collard BC, Jahufer MZ, Brouwer JB, et al. An introduction to markers, quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, and marker-assisted selection for crop improvement: the basic concepts. Euphytica. 2005



Jiang GL. Molecular markers and marker-assisted breeding in plants. In: Andersen SB, editor. Plant breeding from laboratories to fields. Rijeka: InTech; 2013.



Sanchez et al. (2000)



Marker-assisted selection: an approach for precision plant breeding in the twenty-first century-Bertrand C.Y Collard and David J Mackill



MAS Breeding University of Nebraska Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources